Politics and Other Social Sciences Essay Example for Free

Politics and Other Social Sciences Essay Man is a social animal. His social life has many dimensions – political, economic, sociological, psychological, historical etc. Social sciences deal with this multi-dimensional man, his collective life, social behaviour, organisations and activities. All of these dimensions of man are inter-connected leading to interrelationship among various social sciences. Political science, being one of the social sciences dealing with the political aspect of social man, has close connections with other social sciences. The modem approach in the study of social sciences is primarily interdisciplinary. It means that scholars of one specialized social science should work in coordination with scholars of other disciplines. This has resulted in a great deal of overlapping of disciplines. Interdisciplinary study has resulted in a rapid development of theoretical and applied aspects of politics and the sharpening of tools of research and analysis in the present century. Political Science and History Political Science and History are very closely connected. Jellinek remarked: It is almost a common-place today to affirm the necessity of historical study as a basis for a proper understanding of institutions, whether they be political, legal, or social.1 E.H. Carr holds that the dual function of history (is) to enable man to understand the society of the past and to increase his mastery over the society of the present} The cause and effect relationship of social phenomena can be understood by scientific understanding of history. History furnishes the political scientist the raw materials for comparison and induction. The relation of political science and history is well brought out in words of Seeley: History without Political Science has no fruit. Political Science without history has no root. In the words of Freeman, history is past politics and politics is present history. While political science is dependent on history for its material, it must be made clear that history supplies only part of its material. Again, all facts of history are not useful to political science. Garner rightly points out that not all of history is past politics. Much of it – like the history of art, of science, of inventions, discoveries, military campaigns, language, customs, dress, industries, religious controversies – has little, if any, relation to politics and affords no material for political investigation. Political Science selects relevant facts out of history. All political institutions are products of history. Without historical foundations, political science becomes merely speculative and abstract. History is a vast storehouse of facts and information from which political science draw its relevant materials for generalizations. Lipson writes: with its chronological treatment, history offers to the student of politics a sense of growth and development and thus affords insight into the process of social change. Political science has influence on history. Political ideas of thought leaders have contributed in shaping human history. Political revolutions and political concepts like democracy, liberty, equality and political ideologies like liberalism, nationalism and socialism have substantially influenced the history of societies. Garner aptly observes: to interpret history in its true significance we must study that politically. Behaviouralism with its stress on empirical method has undermined the importance of historical method in recent political studies. Traditional method relied more on history as it believed that history can assist in understanding the present and act as a guide for the future. Political Science and Economics Political Science and economics are very closely related and cover a common ground to a large extent. Early writers on economics considered their subject as a branch of political science and termed it ‘political economy’. Politics influences substantially the economic system. The state formulates the economic policies and regulates the economy. Production and distribution of wealth, price control, trade, taxation, government ownership of public utilities, banking, export-import and such other economic activities are regulated by political decision-making. The solution of many economic problems must come through political channels. Indeed many of the complex problems of the modern state are essentially economic in character: the reduction of economic disparity, removal of poverty and unemployment, the adjustment of the claims of capital and labour, nationalization and the achievement of a welfare state. The modern state, Galbraith writes, is an Industrial State. On the other hand, political and social life is profoundly influenced by economic conditions. Karl Marx regarded politics as a part of political economy and maintained that the economic basis of society influences politics which belongs to the superstructure. Political movements and revolutions are profoundly influenced by economic causes. All political ideologies like liberalism, socialism, imperialism, fascism have an economic basis. The political behaviour of man and various organized groups is influenced by economic factors. The main functions of modern welfare state are basically economic. There are economic motives behind many political policies. Political norms like liberty, equality, rights, justice are very often evaluated on an economic basis. Thus there is close relationship between political and economic life. The interaction of the two disciplines has resulted in the increasing importance given to political economy in recent years. Political Science and Sociology No two social sciences are as closely related as political science and sociology. Sociology is the fundamental social science. It is the root of all the social sciences. It is the most comprehensive social science which studies all aspects of the life of man in society. In the words of Small, it is the science of men in their associated processes. Sociology has a much wider scope than political science. It is a study of society in all its manifestations, while political science is primarily a study of the state and government. In other words, sociology deals with man in all his social relations, while political science deals with the man in his political relations. Sociology deals with both organized and unorganised communities and groups, while political science is concerned with organised political communities. The subject of sociology is social man and that of political science is political man. The relation between the two sciences is well brought out by Garner. He writes: Sociology derives from political science knowledge of the facts regarding the organization and activities of the state, while political science derives in large measure from sociology its knowledge of the origin of political authority and the laws of social control. State and politics cannot be studied objectively without an understanding of the general laws of social development. Political institutions and processes are influenced by social forces and factors. Not only does sociology influence political science, but politics also influences the social system. The political system controls and regulates social forces and customs. Politics engineers the process of peaceful social change and is engaged in maintaining social stability and cooperation. Political control is the most important and the most effective among all forms of social control. Contemporary political studies have borrowed concepts, methods and techniques of research from sociology. The current sociological impact on the study of politics can be traced back to the influence of Max Weber. Interdisciplinary study of political science and sociology got tremendous fillip with the emergence of political behaviouralism. A new branch of study named political sociology has emerged as a result of the interaction between political science and sociology. G. Sartori has observed that politics has got socialised and society has got politicised in the present times to such an extent that politics cannot be studied in isolation from sociology. Political Science and Psychology Psychology is the science of mental attitudes and human behaviour. It studies human instincts, attitudes, sentiments and emotions. It has been emphasized that scientific study of social phenomena must have a psychological basis. Psychological factors have become increasingly important for understanding what people believe about politics and how they act in political situations. Study of political behaviour has assumed great significance under the impact of behaviouralism in political studies. The psychological approach in political science goes back to 1908 when A. F. Bentleys The Process of Government and Graham Wallass Human Nature in Politics were published. The psychological approach received further impetus from Chicago School political scientists such as C. E Merrium, Stuart Rice, George Catlin and Harold Lasswell. Modern writers like Tarde, Le Bon, McDougall, Graham Wallas, Baldwin and Ellwood have attempted to explain and interpret political and social phenomena through the laws of psychology. Governments to be stable and popular must reflect the mental ideas and moral sentiments of the people who are subject to its control. Modern governments have devised subtle methods of the psychological manipulation of the masses. Public opinion is being moulded by ingenious propaganda as in politics the art of controlling the mass mind is increasingly becoming the key to political power and stability. Political Science and Ethics Political science has close historical links with philosophy and ethics. Initially, the study of state in Greece was a part of ethics. Ethics as a branch of study investigates the laws of morality and formulates rules of conduct. Ethics is the science of the moral order while political science is the science of the political order. Both have to deal with questions of right and wrong, good and bad, just and unjust. Plato conceived the notion of an ideal state in his Republic and believed that the state should train men in a life of virtue. The end of the state, according to Aristotle, is good life for the citizens. Modern idealists like Rousseau, Kant, Hegel and Green have accepted the state as an ethical institution which creates conditions for the fullest development of human personality. Lord Acton goes so far as to say: The great question is to discover, not what governments prescribe, but what they ought to prescribe. Fox held that what is morally wrong can never be politically right. Gandhis lasting contribution to politics is his insistence upon the spiritualization of politics i.e., application of truth, non-violence, love, self-suffering to mans social and political life. The end of the state has been formulated by the greatest political thinkers in terms of moral values. The state exists to promote social and moral good on the largest possible scale. A good citizen is possible in a good state and perfect state cannot be conceived where wrong ethical principles prevail. Laws are obeyed with greater readiness if they are based on the moral ideas of the community. Politics also influences ethics. Politics safeguards the ethical norms of a society. The state acts as the guardian of social morality. The attempts of some contemporary political scientists to create a value-free political science have not been successful. David Easton aptly observes: The goal of value-free research is a myth The utility of political research stems from the fact that it helps men to decide upon the kind of political system they would prefer and to understand how to go about changing social policy to obtain it. The inspiration behind political science is clearly ethical. Political Science and Jurisprudence The state is a social phenomenon as well as a legal institution. From the legal point of view, the state is a person with rights and duties. It is a juristic personality subject to the process of law. The state operates through law and hence jurisprudence, as the science of law, is closely related to politics. Strictly jurisprudence is a subdivision of political science but on account of its vast scope and technical nature it is studied as a separate branch of study. Jurisprudence has several branches, namely, civil law, criminal law, constitutional law, international law etc. Constitutional law defines the organs of the state, their relations to one another, and the rights and duties of individuals. International law regulates the relations of states and various international organizations: If law influences politics, politics also influences law. Different political systems have different legal systems; Laws tend to be a reflex of a particular social pattern and are influenced by the nature of the political system. Political Science and Anthropology Anthropology deals with man as a social being. It deals with the origin, classification and relations of races, languages and cultures found in different localities. Politics uses the vast material gathered by anthropology. Physical anthropology dealing with the conditions of primitive men and their environment facilitates the study of the origin and evolution of various political institutions. Similarly social or cultural anthropology dealing with the growth and interpretation of customs, traditions, habits and religious beliefs etc., explains the forces and factors operating in political institutions. Anthropological data have assumed great importance in the study of the formation of national character. Political Science and Geography Many writers have emphasized the influence of geographical conditions and physical environment upon national character. Even national policies have been shown to be determined by such conditions. The influence of climate, topography, character of the soil, insularity, the presence or absence of mountains, rivers and outlets to the sea has been emphasized by various political thinkers from Aristotle to the present. Notable among them are Bodin, Rousseau, Montesquieu and Buckle. The emphasis upon geographical factors as determinants of state policy and governmental functioning has resulted in the development of a new science known as ‘Geopolitics’. Since territory is an important element of the state, geographical factors naturally influence political activities. These factors have assumed great significance especially in the field of defence strategy. Political Science and Statistics Statistics is concerned with systematic collection, analysis and presentation of numerical data. Von Mohl described statistics as a means through which a picture of existing political and social conditions could be obtained. Social phenomena and the results of governmental action are quantitatively measured by it. Statistical findings serve as a guide for administrative action, as a basis for legislation, and as a means for testing the expediency or effectiveness of political policies. Therefore, all governments collect statistical information concerning finance, trade, military and economic resources, social conditions of the people etc. Behavioural approach to the study of political science has put excessive stress on statistical methods (quantification, techniques), thereby contributing a lot to the scientific character of political science. The foregoing discussion clearly shows the intimate relation of political science to other social sciences. A proper understanding of political institutions, processes and phenomena calls for reliance upon a number of sister disciplines. Specialization of social sciences should not lead to narrow compartmentalization. Interdisciplinary approach to the study of social sciences has resulted in the blurring of rigid boundaries of various disciplines and highlighting the need for mutual exchange and interaction among social scientists.

Marina Warners The Dragon Empress Essay -- Marina Warner The Dragon E

Marina Warner's The Dragon Empress At the age of sixteen, the beautiful and elegant T’zu-hsi entered the Forbidden City in Peking. The daunting walls, enormous buildings and massive pillars loomed around her as she walked deeper and deeper into its confines. She entered the palace as a timid young girl, but it was from within these walls that she would keep her claws around all of China. Marina Warner describes the life of this ruthless enchantress in The Dragon Empress, an essential read for understanding Chinese culture during the 18th and early 19th centuries. Tz’u-hsi, also known as the empress dowager, ruled all of China from 1861 to 1908. It is amazing that a woman ruled over 400 million people during this time. She began as a courtesan in the emperor’s court, but after bearing a male heir she quickly gained power. After the death of the emperor and the death of her son, Tz’u-hsi appointed her nephew to the throne. She quickly became dissatisfied with him, however, and took all the power for herself. Tz’u-hsi hated the outside powers who were carving up China for themselves, so she encouraged the Boxer Rebellion. The Boxers attacked foreigners in an attempt to get them to leave. Tz’u-hsi also tried to keep China traditional and hated modernization. She was a very powerful and cunning woman who manipulated those around her. The book begins with the birth of Tz’u-hsi in 1835 and goes on to explain her family situation. It describes her path to power and how she manipulated the eunuchs in the palace to act as her spies and personal confidants. From the circumstances of her birth to her fatal fight with dysentery, Tz’u-hsi’s life is described in great detail within the... ...cited, so it is a great tool in understanding Tz’u-hsi. However, I would have believed Marina more if she cited personal accounts of Chinese people who lived during Tz’u-hsi’s time. I would like to know how the people of China really felt, and if it is how Marina describes it. Despite any inherent weaknesses in the book, Marina Warner has done an incredible job bringing the story of Tz’u-hsi and a vivid image of China to the world. The photographs that she placed in this book depict court life and compliment the book well. Marina’s mastery of words allows her to paint the scenes of Tz’u-hsi’s life. I highly recommend this book to anyone who is interested in discovering the intimate details of Tz’u-hsi’s life, her road to power, and China at the turn of the century. Works Cited Warner, Marina. The Dragon Empress. New York: Atheneum, 1986.

Everlost by Neal Shusterman Essay

Allie and Nick both die in a car crash. They’re supposed to go towards that light at the end of the tunnel, but they bump into each other and get knocked into a mysterious world between life and death called Everlost. The world is filled with terror, and unexpected twists for the souls that reside there. Both Nick and Allie want their lives back, so they start exploring this new world, hoping to find a way back to their normal lives. There is a catch, however: If they stand still in the living world for too long, they will sink into Earth. The longer they stay in Everlost, the more they forget about themselves in the real world. In the beginning of the book, they are saved by a boy named Lief, who tells them that they are called â€Å"Afterlights†, who cannot walk where the living walk. They are somewhat like ghosts. He warns them of a dreaded and evil monster, McGill, before they make their way to New York City. There, they meet a Mary Hightower, the â€Å"mother† of Afterlights who keeps many Afterlights safe, and author of hundreds of books on living in Everlost. She lives with the children under her care in the destroyed World Trade Center. This is because things that are much beloved in the world can cross into Everlost if they are destroyed. They settle down, but Allie is not content with the way things are, so she sets out to see if she has special powers. Allie notices other Afterlights at the Twin Towers keep repeating and doing the same exact thing everyday. Lief gets stuck playing the Pac-Man arcade game non-stop and she has to pry him from the game to drag him along with her. They meet The Haunter in a factory that crossed over to Everlost. Allie gets Lief and Nick captured by The Haunter and it is shown that Allie can pick up living things and also possess or ‘skinjack’ as it is called in the book. In her adventures, she learns how to use her own powers. These adventures tell Nick his purpose while revealing the secret plan of Mary Hightower and the real identity of the McGill, Mikey McGill, Mary(really Megan) Hightower’s younger brother. Mary, also known by others as the Sky Witch, has been lying to the children, stealing the coins they invariably have in their possession, which will allow them to leave Everlost, a metaphor for the coins given to pay Charon. Nick has also received the nickname â€Å"Chocolate Ogre† because of how he has a chocolate stain on his face, and Mary spreads rumors about how he sends Afterlights away by luring them in with the smell of chocolate. Allie outsmarts the McGill, who is unmasked by his sister. Allie, traveling home, is later saved by Mikey, who takes her the rest of the way home. Setting: The stories in the Skinjacker trilogy takes place in the Everlost. Everlost is the place between life and death that all lost children end up after getting lost in their journey to the afterlife. These lost children, or Afterlights as they are called, are unseen by the real â€Å"living† world. The afterlights cannot interact with the real world (except those with the ability to possess or â€Å"skinjack† the living and will sink to the Earth’s core if they stay still. An exception, is when somebody has died in that spot. They can interact with certain objects that are loved so much by their owners that when the object breaks, it crosses over to Everlost, unbroken, and is given a place there for eternity. The same is for certain places that were destroyed (the twin towers are used as an example) that were love d and cherished by many people and will never be forgotten. There are no adults in Everlost presumably because they know where they are going Character: Alexandra â€Å"Allie† the Outcast: Allie is a 14-year-old girl who ends up in Everlost after the car she is riding in, crashes head on on a highway with the packed black Mercedes that Nick was in. Allie is brave and â€Å"goal† orientated though not a planner. She was reborn nine months later in â€Å"Everlost† as an Afterlight. Allie discovers that she has the gifted ability to â€Å"possess† (or â€Å"skinjack† as it is called in the book) people. She tries to return home to meet her parents in order to put her troubled mind at ease. However, on the way, she and Nick encounters many adventures.[3] Nick: He is 14 years old. A half-Japanese boy who is more of a follower, not a leader. He was riding in a packed black Mercedes on the way to a wedding when he died with chocolate on his face; now he is stuck in formal clothes and a chocolate covered mouth for eternity. .[3] Megan â€Å"Mary Hightower† McGill: The self-proclaimed expert on Everlost, she has written many books on living in the world between life and death. She also thinks of herself as the mother of the many children stuck in this world, being one of the oldest inhabitants at fifteen. She will do anything to keep the â€Å"lost† Afterlights in Everlost.[3][4] Michael Edward McGill, â€Å"The McGill† or â€Å"Mikey†: The brother of Megan McGill. After escaping the by [[Inner core|earth’s core] by becoming a monster ], he encounters a ghost ship where he spends nearly 20 years looting and â€Å"kidnapping† Afterlights after believing a fortune in a chinese fortune cookie that in exchange for 1000 souls, he can return to the land of the living.[3] Travis, alias â€Å"Lief†: An 11-year-old boy Allie and Nick had found in the crossed-over forest. He follows them throughout the novel, until he reaches a state of peace and leaves Everlost through a coin. Before he leaves it is discovered that his real name was Travis. This is how Nick realizes the coins have the power to help the Afterlights â€Å"ge t where they’re going†.

Legislation Of Raising Bills For Raising Revenue - 1487 Words

According to Article 1, Section 7 of the Constitution, â€Å"All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as on other Bills. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his objections to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other House, by†¦show more content†¦In general, a bill will start with a member of Congress, but members of the public, state legislatures, or the executive branch can also suggest a bill to them. After a congressman decides that they wish to propose legislation, they then have to submit the bill to their respective house. In the House of Representatives, all that is needed is to place the bill into a box, while in the Senate, one must file it with a clerk. To illustrate the process, look at a hypothetical bill introduced in the House. After the bill has been submitted, it will be recorded in the House Journal and the Congressional record. The speaker of the house then assigns the bill to a committee. This is an important step and gives the speaker a large amount of power, as assigning a bill to a committee that will view it unfavorably will almost certainly result in the death of the bill. After the assignment, the committee will hold sessions to make any changes they think are important, and if deemed necessary, the chair will send the bill to a subcommittee. They will hold hearings and do further research before amending the bill, when it will be returned to the main